PCPs with individual functions such as storage, separation, exchange and catalysis can be developed for use on an industrial scale, where, for example, billions of single crystals used for each individual function are produced at the factory. On the other hand, there are many other potential applications of PCPs in the nanometer-micrometer range, especially in biological systems, where the target environments are biological cells with sizes around 1-2 m, and in electronics, where the devices should be fixed on substrates with ordered structures at nanometer scale. For the application of PCPs in the nanometer-micrometer regime, the hybridization of each function into a single particle is essential, creating so-called ‘single particle devices’, which can harmonize with their targeted environments.